CHAPTER 5: LAW MAKING PROCESS  a) Ancient Law-making process:

CHAPTER 5: LAW MAKING PROCESS 

a) Ancient Law-making process: 

FUNDAMENTAL Evolutionary FEATURES OF ANCIENT LAWS (HENRY MAINE'S CONCEPT)

Henry Maine

Sir Henry Sumner Maine (1822–1888) was a lecturer on jurisprudence at Oxford and Cambridge, the founder of anthropological jurisprudence as an aspect of comparative law, a legal historian, and a colonial statesman. Maine is one of the pioneer proponent of historical school of law.

Concept of Evolutionary features of Ancient Laws

Sir Henry Maine focused primarily on the historical evolution of whole societies and what he claimed were the corresponding changes in the gross structure of the legal order. He created a comparative study of the varied legal systems and derived the course of their evolution.

Maine, in his book Ancient Laws (1860), has discussed about the theory of evolution of law. This states that law evolved in the following stages: -

1. The primitive/ static society
2. The progressive society

In the primitive society again divides into the four stages: -

1. Royal judgments/Law made by the ruler under divine inspiration
2. Commands crystallize into custom
3. Knowledge of law in the hand of priests
4. Codification

The static society do not progress beyond this stage. It is at this stage the static societies cease (come to an end) their legal development. Societies that don’t progress beyond the fourth stage that closes the time of spontaneous legal development area units, are known as static societies by Maine. Such society is regulated by position. The member of a family household, wife, child, slave, remains chained up to the family nexus (connection) dominated by the patriarchal family.

In static societies, human relationships are not based on status. There is no family dependency.

Example- The theocratic, religious and conservative societies in the non-western countries (east.).

2. Progressive Society

Progressive societies are those societies which go on developing their law by new methods as per social need. It develops law through three instrumentalities- legal fiction, equality and legislation. Progressive societies were supposed to change with time and situation of developing or evolutionary societies. It was meant to be of dynamic nature.

In progressive societies, human relationships are based on contracts, and the right of persons to freely bargain for goods and services is respected as a legally enforceable norm of contract. Individualism is preferred rather than family dependency.

Examples: -The progressive, political, military and secular societies in the west

The methods by which the progressive societies develop their laws are explained below: -

• Legal fiction

Legal fictions change the law according to the changing needs of the society without making any change in the letter of the ‘acv. There are many examples of it in English & Roman law.

• Equity

Equity is considered as more advanced stage than fictions. It consists of those principles which appeal to the conscience of human beings. It is used to modify the rigidity of law.

• Legislation

Legislation comes in the last which is the most direct and systematic method of law making.

Movement from - Status to Contract

Maine is best known for the proposition advanced in Ancient Law (1860) that “the movement of the progressive societies has hitherto been a movement from status to contract.” As he explained, the ancient law recognized and dealt with the relationships among extended families, not individuals. Individual members of a family were subject to the control of the family head. As he points out, under the Roman legal conception, Pater Potestas, the head of the family possessed virtually complete power, including those of life and death, over members of the family. Consequently, the laws did not recognize individuals because
 

they only had status within the realm of this patriarchal authority. The gradual erosion of the notion of Pater Potestas was marked by a movement to contract, wherein law recognized the capacity of individuals to assume powers, responsibilities, and authority. Progressive societies, as Maine shows, are those where this “emancipation” or “liberation” of the individual had taken place, and “static” societies are those whose legal systems still adhere to “status.”

Henry Maine characterized the movement from more primitive to more advanced systems of law as a movement ‘from status to contract. The more ancient and primitive systems of law organized societies on the basis of status, where your lot in life, and your rights and obligations were determined by the social status you were born in. But as societies and systems of law progressed, people moved away from rigid social structures, and could go out and make voluntary, contractual agreements.

ROLE OF SOCIAL FACTORS IN EVOLUTION OF LAW (SAVIGNY'S CONCEPT)

Friedrich Karl Von Savigny (1779-1861) was a prominent German jurist and legal scholar, also known as the pioneer of Historical school of law. 

He traced the development of law as an evolutionary process much before Charles Darwin gave his theory of evolution.

 It is for this reason; he is even said as “Darwinian before Darwin” for his contribution to apply the evolutionary principle to the development of legal system

Volksgeist (National character)

Introduction

• Friedrich Karl Von Savigny (1779-1861): German jurist, pioneer of Historical school of law.
• Advocated law’s evolutionary process before Darwin’s theory of evolution.
• Called “Darwinian before Darwin” for applying evolutionary principles to legal development.

Volksgeist (National Character)

• Law and people are interrelated; they cannot be isolated.
• Volksgeist: The unique spirit and character of a nation’s people, evident in language, folklore, mores, and legal order.
• Law reflects the “spirit of the people” who evolved it.
• Law is the product of the general consciousness and spirit of the people.

Key Concepts

• Law is not autonomous; it’s integral to social life.
• Law changes with the evolution of language, culture, political systems, and economic structures.
• A nation’s legal system is influenced by historical culture and traditions.
• Custom precedes and is superior to legislation; law confirms to Volksgeist.
• Law is not an arbitrary act but a response to the national spirit.
• Law is a gradual development of common consciousness.
• Law grows, strengthens, and fades with the nation’s vitality.
• Law evolves from customs, language, mannerisms, and societal constitutions.
• Codification cannot influence law’s growth; law evolves spontaneously from customs and traditions.
• Law is like language: it evolves gradually, influenced by religion, custom, habits, and tradition.
• Law has a national imprint and is not universally applicable.
• Law’s foundation lies in the common consciousness, manifested in practice, manners, and customs.
• Different societies have unique customs and attitudes that shape their laws.

Criticisms of Savigny’s Theory

• Ignores fundamental legal issues like universal human rights and basic legal principles.
• Focuses on custom’s social acceptance, ignoring the reasons behind customs.
• Neglects ethical and moral values; not all customs are positive (e.g., barbaric practices).
• Popular consciousness is not always the source of law; alien legal systems can be successfully transplanted.
• Some customs benefit a strong minority rather than the community (e.g., slavery).
• Transplantation of legal codes (German Civil Code in Japan, Swiss Code in Turkey, French Code in Egypt) shows supranational adaptability.
• Underestimates the creative work of judges and jurists.
• Doctrine of Volksgeist; misused by Nazis to justify brutal laws against Jews.
• Twentieth-century welfare state legislation contradicts Savigny’s views, using law to plan the future deliberately.
• Nationalist approach is outdated; modern societies need spontaneous legal development.
• Societies must develop with new methods; static societies are considered regressive.

NEPALESE CONTEXT (do access the premium version…)

Ancient Law-making process in Nepal

Codification of Manav Nyayshastra (Nyaya Bikashini)

Introduction

• Manav Nyaya Shastra (Human Justice Code): First legal document of Nepal, written during the Malla Dynasty in the 14th century.
• Root of the structured law system in Nepal.
• Significant for unifying the legal system in Nepal and major source of justice during the medieval period.

King Jayasthiti Malla's Reforms

• King Jayasthiti Malla of Kathmandu Valley sought to end anarchy from multiple laws based on various Smritis.
• Promulgated a comprehensive code of law: ‘the laws on house’, ‘the laws on area’, ‘the laws on caste’, and ‘legal rules for human justice’ (Manav Nyaya Shastra).
• Aim: Address the lack of common, accessible law.

Motivation and Formation

• Degeneration of ethics and morality due to lack of precise law.
• Theft incident at Pashupatinath Temple prompted the need for strict criminal and penal laws.
• Formation of a committee to set up the code: Kritinath Upadhyaya, Kanyakunja Raghunath Jha Maithil, Shrinath Bhatta, Mahinath Bhatta, and Ramnath Jha were appointed members.
• Based on the concepts expounded by the Narada Smritis.

Structure and Content

• Divided into 17 parts:
  • Laws on money lending, security, partition of ancestral property, partnership, gift, wage, theft, marriage, husband and wife, defamation, and violent crimes.
  • Legal provisions regarding houses, lands, castes, dead bodies, etc.

Influence and Sources

• Written after studying Manu Smriti, Yagyawalkya Smriti, Mitachhyara Tika, Brihaspati Smriti, Narad Smriti, and other holy texts.
• Significant influence of religion in the laws.

Codification of Muluki Ain, 1910

Introduction

• The Muluki Ain, codified in 1910 BS, is regarded as the first comprehensive codified law in the legal history of Nepal.
• It was developed under the direction of Jang Bahadur Rana, the first Rana Prime Minister of Nepal.
• At the time, the concept of a formal constitution had not yet emerged, so the Muluki Ain functioned similarly to what a constitution does today, serving as the fundamental or basic law of the state.
• Historian Tri Ratna Manandhar considers the Muluki Ain of 1910 to be a landmark achievement in the legal history of Nepal.

Preceding Legal System

• Before the enactment of the Muluki Ain, Nepal's legal and judicial systems were administered based on royal edicts such as Rajagya and Sanad, which were unscientific and inconsistent.

Influences and Basis for codification:

• The Muluki Ain was heavily influenced by the Hindu legal system.
• The opening section of the Ain indicates that it was framed in accordance with “Shastras, moral principles, and the experience of the world”.
• These sources align with the three essentials of justice mentioned in the Manusmriti, a highly authoritative ancient Hindu legal text: the scriptures, reasoning, and local customs.
• A thorough study of the Ain reveals that it not only drew from Shastras but also reflected established customs, as it retained some social regulations and criminal laws from earlier periods, including those from the reign of King Jayasthiti Malla.

Rana Regime Legal Developments

• During the Rana regime, spanning from BS 1903 to 2007, there was a gradual emergence of constitutional laws, acts, circulars, decrees, and rules.
• Following Jang Bahadur Rana’s visit to the United Kingdom, a law commission named "Kaushal" was established to unify and codify relevant laws in the state.
• In BS 1910, through the royal seal “Lalmohar”, the Muluki Sawal or the general decree was enacted in Nepal.

Drafting Process

• For drafting the code, two talented Brahmins, Lokpati Jha and Leshpati Jha, were brought in from India.
• These two scholars led the drafting committee, which was formed under their leadership.
• For their notable contribution, they were rewarded with 5000 Bigha of land in Mahottari by King Surendra.
• The original text of the code lists the members of the 230-member Council, which included all senior Ranas, Dharma Adhikari, Pandits, Rajgurus, Chautariyas, experts in astronomy and medicine, and most civil and military officers of the kingdom.
• The Kaushal commission consulted various laws, including Mughal Emperor Akbar’s Ain-e-Akbari, recognizing the liberal stance of Muslims towards Nepalese Hindus.

Promulgation

• The Ain Kausal deliberated for almost three years before finalizing the code.
• On 22nd Poush, the Muluki Ain was promulgated under the Red Seal of King Surendra.
• The Muluki Ain was divided into 5 parts and 163 sections, encompassing around 1,400 pages.
• The codification of the Muluki Ain drew significant inspiration from the Napoleonic Code of France and the written laws of England.

Revisions

• Jang Bahadur’s Muluki Ain underwent thorough revision in 1886 during the rule of Prime Minister Bir Shamsher.
• This revision brought the Ain further in line with contemporary social and political needs, making it more compact and precise.
• Subsequently, the Ain was reprinted several times without any major changes during the tenures of Prime Ministers Chandra Shamsher and Juddha Shamsher.

Law making by Sabal, Khadga Nisana, Sanad & Ishtihar

A serious defect of Muluki Ain 1910 was that this was not the whole law. For, a number of laws and procedural rules having the force of law were issued later in the form of Khadga, Nisana, Sanad and Sawal by the Prime Minister and other officers. Some of these new laws superseded the provisions of the old Ain and some were supplementary to them. Thus, in spite of the codification in 1850 and 1886, the law as inherited by Nepal from the Ranas was a combination of the Ain, and numerous Khadga and Nisana, Sanad and Sawal,

In order to establish new public institutions, courts or delegate powers, Rana Prime Ministers used to issue circulars, also known as “Sanad”. However, these ordinances did not have uniformity as regards to the structure of the document. The circulars used to govern the executive works were known as “Istihar”. An Istihar generally did not contain any introductory parts prevalent in other legal documents.

Colonization of South Asia and Imposition of Western law in South Asia

Colonization

Colonization is invading and taking over sovereignty of another area, which then becomes known as a colony. It is the political and economic control over the indigenous people.

Colonialism refers to “the conquest and control of other people’s lands and goods”, the forceful seizure of local land and economy, and the reshuffling of non-capitalist economies to speed up European capitalism

Colonization typically involved the large- scale transfer of laws and legal institutions from one society to another, each of which had its own distinct sociocultural organization and legal Culture. Example: -French colonies inherited French civil law, while British colonies inherited English Common law.

The elements of the British colonial model applied by Britain to its former colonies include control over land, divide and rule, apartheid laws, ethnocentrism, education and language, religious suppression, native inferiority, depoliticization and trauma and inward violence.

Colonization of western law & Imposition of western law in South

INDIA

India became a Crown colony in 1876, yet the origins of British colonialism can be traced back to 1757 when the British navy and merchants first arrived in India. With India’s defeat on June 23, 1757, in the Battle of Plassey, the Indian subcontinent remained colonized under the British

Empire for the next two hundred years. During the 1760s, the British acquired India from Mughal emperor.

With the 1784 India Act, Britain established direct involvement in India, initially through bringing East India Company activities under the British Parliament’s direct supervision. The 1813 Charter implemented full colonial administration and separate territorial and commercial jurisdictions for the East India Company.

• The British codified laws in India in terms of the rationalization of law in the Weberian sense to ensure “order,” “certainty,” and “uniformity, as well as Bentham’s liberal ideas of the rule of law and equality principles. These laws, while giving a sense of uniformity to the rule of law, were also used against the local populace to suppress uprisings.
• The British abolished the Mughal Court and removed three-quarters of the warlord aristocracy.
• British eliminated many local feudal landowners and established a British-styled bureaucracy whose new aristocrats tended to follow a British lifestyle.
• The British introduced the English language, its underlying culture, literature, and philosophy to strengthen its power base, as well as an elite class who were biologically Indians but culturally English.
• The Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 was introduced during English colonial rule on the recommendations of a Law Commission headed by Thomas Babbington Macaulay.
• From the Common Law system to official dress codes (Black coat and gown) – it is not disputed that the British Colonial rule has shaped the contemporary Indian Court system.
• Exports points out that a colonial psyche persists in the administration of justice through the Indian Court System.
• The blasphemy law of India was inherited from the British colonial government during Punjab’s religious uprising and repeal of the Press Act in 1920, when Muslims violently protested against a publication, Rangeela Rasool. The publication included information of Prophet Mohammad's’private life vastly offending Muslims.
• Sale of Goods Act, 1930 is derived from the contract Act 1872 enacted during British Raj.
•  Negotiable instruments 1881 was adopted from British constitution and is even exercised today.
• Contract law is based on contract Act 1872.
• Partnership law inherited from English legal system.
• The history of modern income taxation for Pakistan dates to 1860.
• The Income Tax Act, 1860 was enacted just after the enactment of UK tax law. Both were very similar. The income tax act of 1886, Income Tax Act of 1918, The Super Tax Act of 1920, The Income Tax of 1922, the income tax ordinance 1979, the income tax ordinance 2001 all are influenced from British way.
• The code of Civil Procedure, 1908
• Charitable Endowment Act 1890.
• Electricity Act, 1910
• Dramatic Performance Act, 1876

BANGLADESH

The land now comprises Bangladesh was knowing as Bengal during British and Mughal regime. East India Company conquered Bengal in 1757 and ruled up to 1947.

• English language was the official language in a majority of education institution and in the judicial system
• There has been the presence and persistence of civil military elitism in Bureaucracy.
• Public Service Commission was established in 1886.
• The dominant language (Bengali) was imposed by the state on the Indigenous people in Bangladesh. Indigenous languages are not recognized, and the Indigenous people’s language rights to this day are not protected despite their demands for having mother tongue education and recognition in their schools.
• Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain on textile manufacture, but Bengal was led to destruction. During colonial rule cash cropping was organized and produced for international markets which created link between the Bengali countryside's economy with markets in Asia and Europe
• Railway system began on 15 November 1862.
• There has been legacy of colonization in Bangladesh police. Modern Bangladesh still uses Police Act, 1861 which was made by colonizers.
• Contemporary Bangladeshi law is still largely colonial in nature as well as spirit. Under British rule, sections 122 and 123 of the colonial Penal Code (“Offence of Sedition”) were routinely applied to freedom fighters as well as people merely suspected of such leanings. This law is still in force in Bangladesh. Some more recently passed laws – such as the Information and Communication Technology Act – similarly criminalizes the act of defaming any person through cyber-technology. The approach is reminiscent of colonial oppression.
• The most important changes were made by creating a British model hierarchy of civil and criminal courts by Civil Court Act 1887 and Code of Criminal Procedure 1898.

Four types of civil courts

1. The court of the district judge.
2. The court of the Additional judge.
3. The court of the Subordinate judge.
4. The court of Munsif.

Five types of criminal courts

1. Court of session
2. Presidency Magistrates
3. Magistrates of the First class
    
4. Magistrate of the Second class
5. Magistrate of the third class

• According to the Bangladesh Code of 2007, there are 975 laws in Bangladesh of which 366 are pre independence laws and 633 have been made after the independence

   

PAKISTAN

By the end of the World War II, the British imperial government granted independence to its Indian colony and for that matter the British Parliament enacted the Indian Independence Act, 1947. Under the Act, the British Crown relinquished its sovereign powers over India and transferred those powers to the newly established dominions of India and Pakistan on 14 August 1947. The Government of India Act, 1935, hitherto the constitution of British India, was amended to bring it in consonance with the aims and objectives of independence as laid down in the 1947 Act. The combination of these two constitutional instruments served as an interim constitutional order for both countries until their respective constituent assemblies adopted their own constitutions.

• The British made their style of education compulsory for the government jobs.
  • The Persian language was replaced by English in the official jobs.
  • Pakistan law is based upon the legal system of British India thus has roots to English legal system.
  • Presently, it is a hybrid of common law and Sharia law.
  • The constitution is based upon the principles of British unwritten constitution; democratic value and parliamentary system of government as the paramount importance in it.
  • On independence, The Government of India Act 1935 retained as a provisional constitution.
  • Pakistan’s Criminal law known as the Pakistan Penal Code was enacted in 1860 by the British Raj, Lord Macaulay. It was earlier known as the Indian Penal Code but was renamed after the partition in 1947.
  • After, the independence of Pakistan as a separate nation also the Lahore Court, Balochistan Court, Peshawar Court and the Sindh Chief Court continued to function and are serving now as High courts. These courts were established during British rule.

• The powers, authority and jurisdiction of the federal and High court remained intact as prescribed under The Government of India Act 1935 after independence too.
  • The constitution of 1956, 1962 and 1973 did not drastically alter the judicial structure or the powers and jurisdiction of the superior courts. Only the Federal court was renamed by the constitution of 1956.
  • In the sphere of administration of justice, the system of trail, the legal system of judicial precedents and justice according to law, are all based on the principles of common law and equity.
  • Some minor modifications have been made. These are largely superficial and related to definitions, terminology and temporal adjustments. But, in essence, the entire legal system of Pakistan remains as the British left it.
  • After the independence, Pakistan inherited its mercantile law & Company law from the British Empire under the ‘Government of India Act 1935’.
  • Sale of Goods Act, 1930 is derived from the contract Act 1872 enacted during British Raj.
  •  Negotiable instruments 1881 was adopted from British constitution and is even exercised today.
  • Contract law is based on contract Act 1872.
  • Partnership law inherited from English legal system.
  • The history of modern income taxation for Pakistan dates to 1860.
  • The Income Tax Act, 1860 was enacted just after the enactment of UK tax law. Both were very similar. The income tax act of 1886, Income Tax Act of 1918, The Super Tax Act of 1920, The Income Tax of 1922, the income tax ordinance 1979, the income tax ordinance 2001 all are influenced from British way.
  • The code of Civil Procedure, 1908
  • Charitable Endowment Act 1890.
  • Electricity Act, 1910
  • Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (now it is “Pakistan Protection Quarantine Act, 1976
  • Dramatic Performance Act, 1876

MALDIVES

• The Maldives legal system is based on an admixture of Islamic law and English law. English common law greatly influences the civil and commercial laws of the country.
  • The Sultan Muhammad Shamshudeen created a committee to draft constitution. The drafting committee was further divided into two councils. The mandate of one council was to review old customs and the second council undertook the responsibility to review English statutes. This justifies the complete impact of British rule.
  • The British government was actively involved in the drafting of the first constitution. Once the British government approved the draft of the constitution then, on 22nd December 1932 it was proclaimed as the first constitution of the Maldives by Sultan Muhammad Shamshudeen.
  • According to Amins (Constitutional export of Maldives), the first constitution was based on English common law, customs of Islamic law and the Egyptian constitution.

SRILANKA

• Today, there are three official languages in Srilanka: the local Sinhalese and Tamil as well as English.
  • Today, Cricket seems to be much bigger in Srilanka that it even is in England.
  • The legal system of Srilanka is combination of Englsh law, Muslim law, Roman Dutch law, Kandyan law and Tesewalamai law.
  • Criminal law, Commercial law, Evidence law, administrative law, Law of Property, Family law, Law of Delicts (Torts)is based on Common law while certain aspects such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are associated with Kandian law, Thesavalamai law and Muslim law.
  • Doctorine of Judicial Precedent
  • Adversial Court procedure
  • Based on English law, there are two types of legal practitioners: Advocates and Proctors.
  • In the 18th century, Roman-Dutch law was increasingly used in the South-west and the south. As a consequence, Private property (Land) rights spread rapidly in these areas.

IMPACT OF COLONIZATION IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM OF NEPAL

For the first time, the impact of colonization on our educational system started when the Rana Prime minister Junga Bahadur Rana came to power. During his Europe visit, he realized that English is very important in order to communicate with outside world and thought of providing western education to his son and established Durbar school the first English medium school in history of Nepal which was affiliated to Calcutta University. He brought teachers from England and India and started giving education based on western curriculum. Only the royal family members were allowed to get education over there. When the royal members were provided with the education based on western curriculum, they started to make such laws which were based on the west.

To strengthen their existence in India, the British colonizers changed the Legal System of India and western Jurisprudence started to be taught in the Indian Law Schools replacing the religious Manusmriti and other different Shrutis. This indirectly affected the Nepalese Legal System.

Nepali land has not been physically colonized but the colonization of the India has severely impacted our politics, laws, social practices, education.

Although Nepal is not colonized there are impact of colonization in law making process of Nepal. They are explained as follows:

1. Before 2007 BS

        I. Enactment of Muluki Ain, 1910 BS

Rana PM Jung Bahadur Rana enacted Muluki Ain 1910, the first codified law of the state after a long visit to France. This law was the outcome of his affection towards French law. Historically, this was the first instance of adopting the legal system of colonizers.

The Muluki Ain amended and codified all laws of Nepal prevailed at that time- civil and criminal including religious and customary. The Ain introduced the system of filing written petitions before the court. The petitioner was required to submit documentary evidence along with petition. List of names of material witnesses had to be given with the petition.

          II. Tripartite agreements

After partition to retain Gurkha services in British and Indian army in1947 BS, a treaty was signed between Nepal, the UK government and post-independent India. This gives glimpse of impact of colonization.

After 2007 BS

Nepali Legal System started to lose its indigenous character and identity after the political change of 2007 B.S. As the indigenous cultures and indigenous laws were discarded slowly by the Nepali rules, adoption of foreign law was started. The following points will demonstrate heavy impact of colonial era education on Nepali law-making process

• The Interim Government of Nepal Act, 2007 was drafted with the help of Indian scholar, Professor Ram Ugra Singh of Lucknow University who was trained in western tradition. Indian Interim Constitution washeavily similar to British-made laws.

  The Pradhan Nyayalaya Act 2008, an act of constitutional importance, was also influenced by the British Indian Tradition. This Act, for the first time, introduced the doctrine of precedent and writ system in Nepal, which can be termed as the basic features of common law family.

  Law commission was formed in 2010 BS, as recommended by Butch Commission, and an Indian official was made the advisor of the Commission. Different acts were brought into commencement on the recommendation of the commission. Civil Right Act, 2012 B.S., Essential Goods Protection Act, Foreign Currency Control Act, Interpretation of Statue Act (2010B.S.) were some of the acts based on Anglo-Indian Model.

  In 2011 B.S., with the establishment of Nepal Law College affiliated to Patana University of India, British style of legal education entered into Nepal.

  Hari Prasad Pradhan, the first chief justice of Nepal, was a person who had studied in Kolkata. He was brought from Kolkata by BP Koirala. He was the product of Indian legal education. Therefore, he had the knowledge of Common Law System. He started to make new rules according to Anglo- Indian model.

• Sir Ivor Jennings of England was invited to prepare the draft constitution of 2015 BS. Jennings naturally transplanted the norms of the constitutional system he was familiar with into the newly framed constitution of Nepal. As a result, many provisions of Interim Government of India Act were borrowed in the constitution, and also the Westminster Model of Governance was accepted in the constitution of 2015 B.S.

  The State Cases Act, 2017 was the most remarkable development in respect of adversarial system in Nepal. This act separated investigation from adjudication. Before this, investigation in criminal cases was conducted under the supervision and control of the court. In such a way Nepal opted to adversarial system from inquisitorial system.

  In 2028 BS the report of the High Commission for Judicial Reform (under chairmanship of Supreme Court Justice Bhagwati Prasad Singh recommended for the adoption of Anglo-American System. This also shows how colonized education system has impacted in our law making and in judiciary. As per the recommendation Evidence Act, 2031 BS was made.

  Promulgation of Constitution of 2047 B.S. made significant effect on the development of Anglo- American inspired Legal System in Nepal. The right to criminal justice guaranteed by the Article 14 of the Constitution is received from common law.

  The States Cases Act, 2049 finished all the possibilities of reinvestigation on the Court’s order and modeled the court fully as an Umpire.

  The Legal Aid Act 2054, Compensation against the Torture Act 2053 are also more important in this regard.

                     Hrithik Yadav.