Chapter 2: History of International relations.

Chapter 2: History of International relations.

A.  Peace treaty of Westphalia:

Introduction

• Ancient international relations: Dominated by empires, little independence, and noninterference.
• Ancient Greece: existence of city-states related like modern sovereign states.
• Sovereignty: Concept arose in Europe (15th-17th centuries), spread globally through colonization and decolonization.

Thirty Years’ War in Europe: 

• Timeframe: 1618-1648.
• Location: Holy Roman Empire (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Belgium).
• Central issue: Protestant vs. Catholic authority.
• Notable events:
  • Protestant rebellion in Prague (1618).
  • Involvement of Sweden, Denmark, France, Spain, and various German princes.
• Impact: Severe population and village destruction.

Peace of Westphalia: 

• Outcome of war: Christian community was replaced by the concept of sovereign states.
• Treaties:
  • Osnabruck and Munster: Signed May 15 and October 24, 1648.
  • Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659): Often included.
• Separate negotiations: Catholics in Munster, Protestants in Osnabruck.
• Participants: 176 representatives from 196 rulers, excluding England, Poland, Muscovy, Turkey.

Key Provisions and Changes

• Holy Roman Empire: Remained a federation, the emperor shared power with princes.
• Independence: Dutch Republic and Switzerland acknowledged as independent.
• Territorial gains: France and Sweden gained land.
• Sovereignty: Concept embraced; small central European states attained sovereignty.
• Equality of states: All sovereign states considered equal; non-interference principle established.
• National militaries: Leaders established permanent militaries.
• Secular authority: Replaced religious authority, equal status for Catholics and Protestants.
• Promotion of trade: barriers on Trade and commerce during war were abolished and free navigation through the Rhine River was initiated.
• Principle of non-intervention in the affairs of other states.

Long-Term Impact

• Core group of states: Austria, Russia, Prussia, England, France, United Provinces.
• Balance-of-power principle: Dangerous for any state to become too powerful.
• Diplomatic methods: Evolution of diplomatic practices and international law.
• Multilateral negotiation: Established as a conflict resolution method.
• Peace as a goal: Recognized as the highest goal of the state community.
• Change in power configuration: France becomes a new superpower.
• Unification of Germany. 

Conflicting Perspectives

• Sovereignty debate: Some argue treaties didn't explicitly mention sovereignty.
• Pre-existing concepts are established between nations rather than redefined.

• Intervention clauses: Sweden and France could intervene, violating individual sovereignty.

  Treaty of Westphalia was unable to bring permanent peace, however it acknowledged the right of self-determination and freedom of religion.

B. Peace treaty of Versailles: 

Introduction: 

• It was signed in June 1990 at the palace of Versailles.
• Also known as dictated peace.
• It was the codified peace between the victorious allies and Germany.
• The treaty held Germany responsible for war and imposed harsh penalties in terms of loss of territory.

Woodrow Wilson's 14 points: 

1. Diplomacy should be public with no secret treaties.
2. All Nations should enjoy free navigation of the seas. 
3. Free trade should exist among all Nations.
4. All countries should reduce arms in the name of public safety.
5. Fair and impartial ruling in colonial claims.
6. Restore Russian territories and freedom. 
7. Belgium should be restored to independence. 
8. Alsace- Lorraine should be returned to France and France should be fully liberated.
9. Italy's frontiers should be drawn along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
10. People living in Austria-Hungary should be granted self-determination.
11. The Balkan States should also be guaranteed self-determination and independence.
12. Turks and those under Turkish rule should be granted self-determination.
13. An independent Poland should be created.
14. A general association of nations must be formed to mediate international disputes.

 Paris peace conference:

• In 1919, France and its prime minister, Georges Clemenceau had not forgotten the humiliating loss and intended to avenge it in the new peace agreement.

Major products of the conference were:

•  The covenant of the league of nations, which was submitted in a first draft on February 14, 1919, and finally approved, in a revised version, on April 28.
• The Treaty of Versailles, presented at last to a German delegation on May 7, 1919, and signed, after their remonstrances, on June 28, 
• The treaty of Saint-Germain, presented to an Austrian delegation in a rough draft on June 2, 1919, and in a fuller version on July 20 and signed on September 10, and 
• The Treaty of Neuilly.

Major terms of treaty may be broadly classified into the following divisions: 

A. Territorial losses to Germany: 

• Germany lost Alsace- Lorraine to France and Eupen- Malmeidy to Belgium.

B. Military provisions and safeguards: 

• Germany was allowed an army of 1 lakh.
• Germany was restricted to having only 6 Battleships.
•  And six light cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. 
• The Rhine was demilitarized 50 km east meaning that military forces and fortifications were not allowed within this area.

C. War guilt clause: 

•  was imposed on Germany.
• Germany was imposed for all loss and damages of allied power.
• Kaiser William II was accused ‘for a supreme offense against international morality’.

Treaty of Versailles - Negative Arguments (reasons for failure):

• Dictated Peace: Germany had no say in the treaty and felt it was unfair.
• War Guilt Clause: Germany was blamed for starting the war, which angered Germans.
• Harsh Territorial Losses: Germany lost land and people, which they felt was excessive.
• Crippling Reparations: The enormous amount of money Germany was forced to pay damaged their economy.
• Unstable New Nations: The treaty created new countries with ethnic problems that would lead to future conflicts.
• Ignored Wilson's Points: The treaty did not reflect Wilson's Fourteen Points for a just peace.
• Fueled Rise of Hitler: The resentment caused by the treaty helped Hitler come to power and start WWII.

C. Locarno Agreements: 

Background

• Post-WWI efforts for peace included:
  • Treaty of Versailles (League of Nations creation)
  • Geneva Protocol (1924) for peaceful dispute settlements and military measures against aggressors
  • Geneva Protocol's mutual security idea failed due to lack of willingness to defend distant states
  • Regional mutual security deemed more acceptable
• Locarno Conference (1925)
• Initiated by Germany's Foreign Minister on February 9, 1925
• Aimed at regional peace and security in Europe
• Held in Locarno, Switzerland, from October 5, 1925, for 11 days
• Resulted in seven treaties, signed in London on December 1, 1925
• Treaties became effective on September 14, 1926

Locarno Treaties Overview

• Purpose: Guarantee peace in Western Europe and stabilize post-WWI territorial settlements
• Signatories: Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, with Poland and Czechoslovakia involved in specific treaties
• Major agreements:
  • Treaty of Mutual Guarantee (Rhineland Pact):
    • Ensured inviolability of Belgian-German and Franco-German borders
    • Guaranteed demilitarization of the Rhineland
    • Pledged non-aggression except in self-defense
    • Required assistance to any party attacked
  • Arbitration Conventions/Treaties:
    • Germany with Belgium, France, Poland, Czechoslovakia
    • Disputes to be settled through arbitration or the Permanent Court of International Justice
  • Treaties of Guarantee:
    • France with Poland and Czechoslovakia
    • Pledged mutual assistance in case of German aggression

Significance

• Symbolized goodwill post-WWI
• Germany voluntarily signed, improving its relations with other European powers
• Germany admitted to the League of Nations (1926), gaining a permanent Council seat
• Eased post-war tensions, inspired Nobel Peace Prizes (1925, 1926)
• Led to Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Criticisms

• Collective security remained uncertain, lacking enforcement mechanisms
• Failed to limit armaments despite intentions
• Divided European borders into guaranteed western and revision-prone eastern frontiers
• Created distrust, especially between Poland and Western countries
• Ultimately ineffective in preventing WWII:
  • Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936) ignored by Britain
  • Daab ke lag brand pack No arbitration efforts by Germany in disputes with Czechoslovakia (1938) or Poland (1939)
  • Viewed as isolating Russia from European security arrangements
• Locarno spirit dissolved due to opposition in Germany and France
• Some argue it reduced the significance of the League of Nations and Treaty of Versailles

Conclusion

• While initially seen as a step toward lasting peace, the Locarno Treaties failed to prevent the resurgence of hostilities and the onset of WWII.

D. The Kellogg Briand Pact: 

Background:

• France sought security after WWI and proposed a treaty to the US in 1927.
• The US, skeptical of the League of Nations, sought alternative peace efforts.

Introduction:

• It was signed in 1928 by 15 nations, including the US and France.
• Aimed to outlaw war as a tool of national policy.
• 62 nations ultimately signed the pact. 

Key Provisions: (Significance):

• Renounced (refused) war, committed to pacific conflict resolution.
• Allowed self-defense, action against treaty-breakers, and League obligations.
• Open for adherence by all nations.
• Established self-defense as the sole legal basis for war.
• Deemed territorial acquisition through force would be unlawful.
• Served as basis for Nuremberg Tribunal's crime against peace.

Negative Arguments: (Tiger without teeth, due to following reasons;)

• Reservations weakened enforcement (e.g., Britain's colonial force use).
• Lack of sanctions and reliance on diplomacy rendered it ineffective.
• Failed to outline specific measures which result in failure to prevent WWII aggressions by Japan, Italy, Germany.
• Loopholes in self-defense interpretation hindered effectiveness. (it still permitted war in self-defense).

Conclusion:

• Kellogg-Briand Pact aimed for lasting peace but faced enforcement challenges.

• Raised questions about its relationship with League of Nations' security principles.

   

E. The Munich Pact: 

Background

• Czechoslovakia: Created by Treaty of Versailles was disliked by Germans.
  • Population: Nearly 3 million German speakers in Sudetenland.
  • Mixed nationalities living in harmony, disliked by Hitler.
  • Its alliances with France and Russia were viewed strategically by Hitler as it is well protected by the mountains and had excellent airfields.
• Hitler's Motive: 
  • Expand living space for Germans.
  • Disdain for Slavs and Czechoslovakia’s alliances.
  • Plan for invasion, using German minority unrest as a pretext.

Lead-Up to Agreement: 

• March 1938: Germany occupies Austria, breaching Treaty of Versailles.
• Sudeten German Party: Formed in 1931, agitated for German control, supported by Sudeten Germans.
• Czechoslovak Government: Declared martial law due to unrest.
• Diplomatic Moves:
  • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain: Sought peaceful solution.
  • Initial Agreement: They both agreed for an Area with >50% German population to Germany.
  • Hitler's New Demands: Full occupation of Sudetenland, expulsion of non-Germans, territorial concessions to Poland and Hungary.

Munich Conference (29 September 1938)

• Participants: Germany (Hitler), Britain (Chamberlain), France (Daladier), Italy (Mussolini).
  • Exclusions: Czechoslovakia, Russia.
• Outcome:
  • Sudetenland ceded to Germany.
  • Hitler guaranteed the end of territorial expansion.
  • Czechoslovakia was forced to accept terms under threat of no support if war occurred.

Aftermath

• German Occupation: Began on October 1 was warmly received by Sudeten Germans.
• Chamberlain’s Declaration: Claimed "peace for our time."
  • Mixed reactions in Britain, division over appeasement policy.
• Further Actions by Hitler:
  • Encouraged Poland and Hungary to take Czechoslovak land.
  • Occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.
  • No significant response from Britain or France.
• Strategic Consequences:
  • Strengthened Hitler’s position for further expansion.
  • Facilitated attack on Poland.
  • Realization that the German army would have been weak in the 1938 war.

Reflection of conference: 

• Appeasement Policy: Initially seen as avoiding war, later viewed as empowering Hitler.

• Impact: Shifted British opinion against appeasement, highlighted need for military readiness.

  Prepared and edited by Madhu Dahal and Manish Rajak.