Chapter 3: DIPLOMACY:

Chapter 3: DIPLOMACY: 

A. Definition and Nature of diplomacy:

I. Introduction

• Origin of the term "diplomacy":
  • Greek word ‘diploma’ (two-fold).
  • Used in the Roman Empire for official travel documents, treaties.
  • French term ‘diplomatie’ (1700s) for authorized negotiators.
  • Introduced to English by Edmund Burke in 1796.
• Definition in Broad Sense: Entire process of conducting foreign relations or means for allies to cooperate, adversaries to resolve conflicts.
• Definition in Narrow Sense:
  • Instrument for implementing foreign policy.
  • Political tool for states to pursue goals via coercion, persuasion, adjustment, agreement.
• Definitions:
  • Oxford English Dictionary: Management of international relations by negotiation.
  • Quincy Wright (1952): Use of tact, shrewdness, skill in negotiations to achieve objectives with minimal costs.
  • Hedley Bull: Conduct of relations between sovereign states by official agents and peaceful means.
  • Sir Earnest Satow (1962): Application of intelligence and tact in official relations between governments.
• Function of Diplomacy During War:
  • Protects national security by peaceful means or assists military operations.
  • Builds alliances, disrupts enemy alliances, facilitates war termination and peace.
• Laws: 
  • 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
  • 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations.

Thus, Diplomacy is a Management of relations using correspondence, talks, lobbying, visits, persuasion, etc.

II. Nature of Diplomacy: 

1. Chief Instrument of Foreign Policy: Foreign policy sets goals; diplomacy implements them. Success of foreign policy depends on effective diplomacy.
2. Purpose: Strengthen state by advancing interests without force. Focus on dialogue and negotiation.
3. Diplomacy as an Art: Based on persuasion, compromise, threat of force. Requires skillful balance of these elements.
4. Confidentiality: Conducted in confidence, though outcomes are public.
5. Conducted through Institutions: Likes, Foreign offices, embassies, consulates, special missions. Traditionally bilateral, increasingly multilateral institutions. 

• Functions of Diplomatic Mission (Article 3, Vienna Convention 1961):
  • Representation
  • Negotiation
  • Reporting
  • Protection of Interests
  • Promotion of Friendly Relations.

Basic functions of diplomats can be shown as below: 

• Legal functions. 
• Political functions. 
• Symbolic functions. 

(Article 5 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 has outlined the Consular Functions.)

C. Classification of Diplomats and Counsels:

Main Groups

• Diplomatic Personnel: Specialize in representation and negotiation.
• Consular Personnel: Focus on protection of nationals' interests.

Diplomatic Personnel:

• Historical Development:
  • Pre-1815: There was no general agreement on diplomatic precedence.
  • Congress of Vienna (March 17, 1815) established diplomatic officer roles.
  • Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (November 21, 1818) provided supplementary rules.
  • The Vienna Conference of 1961 defined new classes for diplomatic representatives.
• Classes of Heads of Missions (Article 14, Vienna Convention 1961):
  • Ambassadors and Nuncios: Accredited to heads of states. Equivalent rank; heads of missions.
  • Envoys and Internuncios: Accredited to heads of states.
  • Chargés d’Affaires: Accredited to ministries of foreign affairs.
• Diplomatic Service Hierarchy:
  • Chiefs of Mission: Rank as ambassadors or ministers.
  • Counselors of Embassy or Legation: Highest rank among diplomatic staff.
  • Secretaries of Embassy or Legation: Ranked as first, second, and third secretaries.
  • Attaches:
    • Junior career officers or temporary non-career personnel.
    • Categories include commercial, agricultural, military, naval, air, petroleum, cultural, press, labor, and others.

Consular Personnel: 

• Classes of Consuls:
  • Consuls General: Supervisory powers over large or multiple smaller consular districts.
  • Consuls.
  • Vice Consuls of Career.
  • Vice Consuls Not of Career.
  • Consular Agents.
• Career vs. non-career:
  • First three classes: Career foreign service officers.
  • Last two classes: Non-career officers, may be promoted clerical staff or non-citizens of the represented country. 

D Types of Diplomacy: 

I Democratic Diplomacy

Characteristics:

• Involves public participation in government affairs.
• Foreign policy and diplomacy are influenced by public opinion.
• Emphasizes open diplomacy rather than secret negotiations.
• Foreign policies are developed by elected representatives.
• The public has the right to be informed about major foreign affairs developments.
• Active free press and freedom of information exert continuous pressure on public officials.
• The diplomatic service is open to any citizen who meets the requirements.

Disadvantages:

• Delicate negotiations may fail due to public involvement.
• Open diplomacy may hinder necessary compromises.
• Public opinion can limit foreign policy actions.
• The decision-making process can be slow.

II. Totalitarian Diplomacy

Characteristics:

• Foreign policies are determined by a few top leaders.
• There is no public right to information or input on agreements.
• Utilizes military, political, and psychological power.
• Diplomats act as agents of conquest and espionage.
• Aims to create and maintain bad relations.
• Embassies serve as centers for espionage.

Examples:

• The Soviet Union viewed capitalist states as enemies.
• Nazi Germany signed treaties only as long as they were beneficial.

III. Personal Diplomacy

Characteristics:

• Involves the direct participation of top leaders (foreign ministers, prime ministers, heads of states) in diplomatic negotiations.
• Major decisions are made during personal meetings.
• Provides opportunities for more realistic assessments and removes misunderstandings.
• Leaders handle delicate international issues personally.

Disadvantages:

• Top leaders may lack time for adequate preparation.
• Public expectations may lead to disappointment if no major gains are made.

Other Forms of Diplomacy

IV. Informal Diplomacy (Track II Diplomacy):

• Involves figures with informal access to leadership.
• Used to express intentions or suggest resolutions without formal positions.
• Engages non-officials such as academics, retired officials, public figures, social activists, and business actors.

V. Para Diplomacy:

• Conducted by sub-national, regional, local, or non-central governments.
• Common in cooperation between bordering entities.
• Some non-central governments are allowed to negotiate and enter into agreements with foreign central states.

VI. Cultural Diplomacy:

• Involves cultural exchanges in fields such as art, sport, literature, music, science, and the economy.
• Aims to promote national interests, build relationships, enhance socio-cultural understanding, and promote trade and investments.

VII. Economic Diplomacy: Elements:

1. Uses political influence and relationships to promote and/or influence international trade and investments.
2. Uses economic assets and relationships to strengthen cooperation and stable relationships.
3. Creates a conducive political climate and international environment to facilitate these objectives (e.g., WTO, EU). 

E. Propaganda and diplomacy, propaganda as a part of diplomacy in current International Relations. 

Definition:

• Propaganda means to disseminate or promote particular ideas.
• Originally used by the Roman Catholic Church to refer to the dissemination of its doctrines.
• Defined as any attempt to persuade persons to accept a certain point of view or to take a certain action.

Scholars: 

• Jowett & O'Donnell (Propaganda and Persuasion, 2012): "Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist."
• Alex Carey (1997): "Communications where the form and content is selected with the single-minded purpose of bringing some target audience to adopt attitudes and beliefs chosen in advance by the sponsors of the communications."

Characteristics of Propaganda: 

1. repetition: must be continuously propagated. 
2. Imagery: It could be political or descriptive. 
3. Sentiment: it must appeal to some strong emotion.

Basic Ideas regarding propaganda: 

• Organized efforts by governments or members of governments to induce either domestic groups or foreign states to accept favorable policies.
• Propaganda is generally carried out through media capable of reaching and persuading large audiences.
• Some argue that any persuasive communication is propaganda, while others believe it specifically alters political opinions.
• Historically, propaganda has evolved with communication technologies:
  • Ancient Greece: word of mouth.
  • Printing press: posters and books.
  • Radio and Television: increased amount and effectiveness.
  • Internet: further increases in propaganda.

Sources of Propaganda:

1. Governments.
2. Organizations (political, religious, pressure groups, etc.).
3. Businesses.

Intention and Techniques:

• The intention to influence or deceive is key to identifying propaganda.
• Experts disagree on what constitutes propaganda and whether it differs from other forms of persuasion.
• Some believe propaganda includes truthful advertising and political campaigning.
• Others believe it involves presenting a mix of truths, half-truths, lies, and distortions.

Usage in Wartime:

• Extensive use during wartime to urge people to save resources, volunteer, support the war effort, and make sacrifices for victory.
• Psychological warfare: a type of propaganda aimed at weakening the enemy's will to fight or belief in their government.
• Covert propaganda: comes from hidden sources, such as fake newspapers reporting huge losses to discourage enemy troops.

Propaganda and Diplomacy:

• Old diplomacy rule: diplomats must not interfere in internal affairs of the receiving country.
• New diplomacy uses formal and informal penetration techniques, including propaganda.
• Development of science and technology has greatly affected diplomacy.
  • Print media, television, and radio have influenced everyday life.
  • Press Attachés in major embassies secure government views and obtain publicity.
  • Direct appeal to people through radio, press, and other methods is common.
  • Propaganda is a permanent feature in the diplomatic practice of certain countries, especially totalitarian states.
• Foreign policy makers paid due attention to the role of propaganda, meaning diplomats had to perform and execute their job by sailing on winds of propaganda.
• Diplomacy spread through propaganda. 
• Propaganda has its own impact upon diplomatic bargaining. 
• In the time fascism propaganda was one of the essential parts of the official ideology. They create mass hysteria by means of propaganda.
• Mussolini's fasces and Hitler Swastik were used to inspire people to to be a part of life of do or die.
• In democratic diplomacy propaganda has become very important. Diplomacy is sometimes dominated by propaganda.
• Adolf Hitler established a ministry of propaganda.

F. Diplomacy before and after WWI.

Diplomacy Before First World War

Primitive Societies:

• Ideas like diplomatic immunity existed among Australian aborigines.
• Messengers and envoys maintained intertribal relations in Australia, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Early Diplomatic Systems:

• Greek System:
  • Developed early diplomatic functions.
  • No permanent missions; sent emissaries for specific missions.
  • Open negotiations conducted publicly.
• Roman System:
  • Formalized ambassadorial appointments and status.
  • Maintained treaties and followed international guidelines.
  • Included observation, reporting, and representation.
• Italian System:
  • Created permanent diplomatic missions in the 15th century.
  • Developed a corps of professional diplomats.
• French System:
  • Centralized foreign relations management.
  • Introduced permanent diplomatic missions and rules in 1648.
  • Emphasized state interests over rulers’ personal ambitions.
• Treaty of Vienna (1815):
  • Established a codified system of protocol.
  • Created the Concert of Europe for stability and discussion.

Diplomacy After First World War

New Diplomatic Era:

• International relationships became global.
• Introduction of democratic control and emphasis on economics and finance.
• Establishment of the League of Nations for multilateral diplomacy.

Open Diplomacy:

• Public scrutiny and control of diplomacy.
• Major international agreements required legislative approval.

Multilateral Diplomacy:

• Increased due to advancements in travel and communication.
• Addressed global concerns through international organizations.

Public Diplomacy:

• Government influence on public opinion in other countries.
• Involves propaganda and interaction of private groups.

G. Diplomacy After Second World War

Expanded Agenda:

• Inclusion of political, economic, technological, and environmental issues.
• Involvement of international organizations like the UN.

International Organizations:

• UN and its agencies handle diverse fields previously managed bilaterally.
• New issues such as refugees, human rights, and globalization.

H. Cold War Era:

• Emergence of new states with aspirations for industrialization.
• 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations established.
• Ideological confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union.
• Focus on avoiding nuclear war through nuclear, crisis, and summit diplomacy.

H. Post-Cold War Diplomacy

Global Scope and Complexity:

• Increased multilateral diplomacy due to international organizations.
• Openness of agreements ensured by UN rules.

Regional Organizations:

• Joint economic development initiatives (EU, APEC, NAFTA, SAPTA).

Increased Diplomatic Activity:

• Rapid growth in diplomatic activity and treaty conclusion.

Changes in Diplomacy:

• Decline in ambassador decision-making power.
• Increased use of economic and commercial diplomacy.
• More involvement of heads of government and non-state actors.

• New emerging issues like global warming, AIDS, and terrorism require new diplomatic techniques.

  Prepared and edited by Madhu Dahal and Manish Rajak.