Chapter 6: Disarmament and arms control.

Chapter 6: Disarmament and arms control. 

A. Meaning and Nature of disarmament and Arms control. 

Definition of Disarmament:

• Disarmament involves reducing a state's military forces and weapons.
• It doesn't mean completely eliminating all weapons.
• Immediate goal: Cut down deadly weapons.
• Ultimate goal: Eliminate all weapons, though this is often seen as unrealistic.
• Disarmament can be voluntary, imposed by others, or the result of treaties.
• The main aim is to prevent arms races and conflicts by reducing or eliminating certain weapons.
• It typically limits weapons to what's necessary for national defense.

Disarmament vs. Arms Control:

• Arms Control: Regulates the number, type, and use of weapons.
• Disarmament: Reduces or eliminates existing weapons.
• Disarmament focuses on current stockpiles; arms control includes future production and use.

Reasons for Disarmament:

• Weapons create tension and can lead to wars.
• Removing weapons can stop wars and build trust between states.
• Disarmament is key for global peace and human progress.
• Nuclear weapons pose a risk of total destruction.
• Global safety can be achieved through disarmament.
• Redirecting military spending could alleviate poverty, improve education and healthcare, and protect the environment.

Types of Disarmament:

• Partial and General:
  • Partial: Reduces specific dangerous weapons.
  • General: Abolishes all types of weapons.
• Global and Local:
  • Global: Involves many countries.
  • Local: Involves a few countries.
• Voluntary and Compulsory:
  • Voluntary: Carried out willingly by a state.
  • Compulsory: Done to meet treaty requirements.

B. Disarmament and Arms Control in International Relations

Historical Context:

• Disarmament ideas date back to 600 BCE among Chinese states.
• Formal agreements were rare before the 20th century.
• Post-1945: Focus on limiting Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), especially nuclear weapons.

Methods (process) to Achieve Disarmament and Arms Control:

1. Setting Limits:
   • Imposing numerical limits on weapons and delivery systems.
   • Example: 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty.
2. Restricting Development/Testing:
   • Banning the development, testing, and deployment of certain weapons.
   • Example: 1967 Outer Space Treaty, 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
3. Limiting Transfers:
   • Restricting the transfer of weapons between countries.
   • Example: 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT).

Key Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements:

• 1925 Geneva Protocol (Chemical/Biological Weapons).
• 1959 Antarctic Treaty (No weapons in Antarctica).
• 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty (No nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, space, underwater).
• 1967 Outer Space Treaty (No military activity in space).
• 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
• 1971 Seabed Treaty (No WMD on seabed/ocean floor).
• 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (No development/production of biological agents).
• 1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (Eliminates intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe).
• 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (Bans chemical weapons).
• 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (No nuclear explosions).

Nepal's Involvement:

• Party to: Geneva Protocol, Chemical Weapons Convention, Outer Space Treaty, Partial Test Ban Treaty, Sea-Bed Treaty, NPT.
• Signatory to: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, Biological Weapons Convention.

Effectiveness of Disarmament:

• Partial successes, such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty.
• Bilateral treaties reduced tensions and helped end the Cold War.
• National interests often limit full compliance with disarmament.
• New weapon systems emerge even as others are limited.

C. Role of the United Nations:

UN’s Role in Disarmament:

• The UN Charter emphasizes disarmament.
• The General Assembly's first resolution addressed disarmament.

Three Key UN Roles:

1. Channeling Ideas:
   • The UN transmits ideas from national sources to the international community.
   • Example: Banning nuclear testing.
2. Forum for Discussion:
   • Debates and reconciles norms in the General Assembly.
   • Produces conventions and treaties.
3. Legitimacy and Enforcement:
   • Provides moral weight and can take coercive measures.
   • Example: Security Council actions under Chapter 7 of the UN Charter.

UN Organs and Agencies:

• General Assembly:
  • Main deliberative body.
  • The First Committee handles disarmament and international security issues.
• Security Council:
  • Maintains international peace and security.
  • Can make binding decisions.
• UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA):
  • Supports disarmament and non-proliferation efforts.
  • Provides organizational support and promotes regional disarmament.
• UN Regional Centers for Peace and Disarmament:
  • Located in Togo, Nepal, and Peru.
  • Assist states with technical areas and promote regional disarmament.

Important Treaties:

• Chemical Weapons Convention.
• Biological Weapons Convention.
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. 

D. Role of USA and Russia (USSR): (In Disarmament):

World War II and Nuclear Arms Race:

• WW2, the deadliest conflict, led to the development of nuclear weapons.
• The US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
• The USA and USSR began developing large nuclear arsenals post-WW2.
• Fear of mutual destruction led to negotiations to limit nuclear weapons.

Arms Control Agreements:

• Preceding Agreements:
  • International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) established in 1957.
  • The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 demilitarized Antarctica.
• Cold War Arms Control:
  • Focused on mutual deterrence to prevent nuclear conflict.
  • SALT talks in the 1970s restrained nuclear missile buildup.
  • SALT I agreements (1972) limited anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) and ICBMs.
  • SALT II agreement (1979) limited MIRVs and strategic launchers.

Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC):

• Established in 1972, supplemented the Geneva Protocol of 1925.
• Required signatories to refrain from developing and using biological weapons.
• Reviewed periodically to adapt to scientific advancements.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF):

• Signed in 1987 between the USA and USSR.
• Committed to eliminating intermediate- and medium-range land-based missiles.

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START):

• Negotiations began in 1982 to reduce nuclear arsenals.
• Produced a treaty in 1991 reducing strategic nuclear forces by 25 to 30 percent.

Current Concerns:

• Countries with nuclear weapons, especially the USA, often have double standards regarding compliance with disarmament treaties.
• The US withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2001, enabling research, development, and testing of new nuclear weapons.

Note:

• The USA and USSR (now Russia) played key roles in negotiating arms control agreements during the Cold War.
• These agreements aimed to prevent nuclear conflict and reduce the risk of global devastation.
• Despite progress, concerns remain over compliance and the development of new nuclear technologies.

E. Small Arms Control and International Relations

Overview:

• Small Arms: Weapons for individual use (revolvers, pistols, rifles, machine guns).
• Light Weapons: Designed for use by a crew of 2-3 persons.
• Production: Over 1,000 companies in ~100 countries, concentrated in 30 countries (leading: USA, Russia, China).
• Annual Production: 7.5-8 million small arms (UN Office for Disarmament Affairs).
• Circulation: Difficult to count, majority owned by civilians.
• Trade Regulation: Poorly regulated, least transparent weapons system.
• Illicit Market: Legal to illicit market transition is easy; all UN arms embargoes have been violated.

Prevalence and Impact:

• Characteristics: Cheap, light, easy to handle, transport, conceal.
• Use in Conflicts: Predominantly used in current conflicts, civil wars, terrorism, organized crime, gang warfare.
• Casualties: 526,000 deaths/year from armed violence (Global Burden of Armed Violence 2011); over 75% occur outside war zones.
• Human Rights Abuses: Most abuses committed with small arms; major cause of displacement and food insecurity.
• Economic Impact: Armed conflict and high violence levels impede economic growth (IMF).
• Affected Groups: Women and girls gravely affected; young males most common users and victims.

International Regulation Measures: 

1. UN Program of Action (2001)
   • Nature: Politically, not legally binding.
   • Scope: Encourages national, regional, global measures.
   • Actions: Legislation, weapon destruction, international cooperation, assistance in identifying/tracing illicit arms.
2. International Tracing Instrument (2005)
   • Nature: Politically, not legally binding.
   • Scope: Applies to all UN Member States.
   • Actions: Marking, record-keeping, cooperation in tracing illicit arms, capability for tracing and responding to requests.
3. Firearms Protocol (2005)
   • Nature: Legally binding under UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime.
   • Scope: Applies to ratifying States.
   • Objectives: Prevent, combat, eradicate illicit manufacturing/trafficking.
   • Commitments:
     1. Licensing system for manufacture and trade.
     2. Establish criminal offences for illegal activities.
     3. Marking and tracing provisions.

Regional Measures:

• Regional Treaties/Agreements: Various strategies and agreements on small arms control developed by regional organizations.

F. Landmines and International Relations: 

Overview

• Usage: Widely used in conflicts (WWI, WWII, SE Asia, Korean War, Gulf War 1991).
• Victim-activated: Can remain dormant for years; cause severe injuries and fatalities, mostly to civilians, including children.
• Purpose: Originally to prevent removal of anti-tank/vehicle mines, protect strategic locations, injure rather than kill to burden enemy resources.
• Proliferation: Cheap, accessible, used by regular and non-state forces. Tens of millions buried in over 70 countries, often unmarked/unrecorded.
• Impact: Kill/injure civilians, restrict access to farmland, impede movement, prevent refugee return, hinder economic development.

Affected Regions

• Contaminated Areas: Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, Bosnia, Cambodia, Chechnya, Colombia, Iraq, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, India, Pakistan (limited info available).
• Disproportionate Impact: Affects poorest countries; clearance is costly and dangerous.

International Measures to Prohibit Anti-Personnel Mines

1. Mine Ban Convention (Ottawa Convention, 1997)
   • Bans: Use, production, stockpiling, transfer of anti-personnel mines.
   • Commitments: Destroy stockpiles within 4 years, clear mines within 10 years, mine clearance, education, survivor assistance.
   • Development: Ottawa Process (civil society, Governments, UN); adopted in Oslo, signed in Ottawa.
   • Status: Entered into force March 1999; 162 States parties as of June 2015. Key non-signatories include China, Egypt, India, Israel, Pakistan, Russia, USA.
   • Impact: Halted global trade in anti-personnel mines, annual meetings to review progress.
2. Protocol II (Amended, 1996) of CCW: 
   • CCW Annex: Part of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.
   • Restrictions: On anti-personnel/vehicle mines, booby-traps; no total ban.
   • Prohibitions: Use causing superfluous injury/unnecessary suffering, detection-triggered mines, targeting civilians/civilian objects, indiscriminate use.
   • Commitments: Clear mines post-conflict, protect civilians, provide warnings, maintain records, protect humanitarian missions.
   • Status: Entered into force 1998; 102 States parties as of June 2015. Nepal is not a party.